J.G.
Washington

Answer: Thank you for your recent request for information from ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. I am pleased to provide you with information on preventing and controlling thistles in forage crops.

Weeds are signs that something is happening in the field that may weaken grasses and decrease productivity. As long as a grass stand is maintained intact through proper management, the grass community will thrive. However, when some kind of disturbance occurs, the grasses often have a hard time bouncing back without weed populations becoming established. Why does this happen? Weeds take advantage of a niche left open by grasses as they disappear. But why can’t a grass plant take that niche just as easily as a weed? The reason is that weeds have evolved to be very competitive for nutrients and have adapted to soil conditions that most grasses have not. If a soil is disturbed through compaction (the destruction of soil structure due to animal impact or machinery), or if it has become infertile due to intensive cropping and harvesting of nutrients, weed species will find a comfortable home. This is nature’s way of correcting imbalances, because deep-rooted weeds can scavenge non-available nutrients, translocate them to their leaves and stems, and return them to the soil when they die. This is, in effect, a way of soil building in degraded soils. After the soil has become porous due to the rooting of weeds, and nutrients have been returned to the soil, natural grassland plant succession can take over and the grasses will begin to return.

Preventing Thistles in Forage Crops

The presence of weeds in an established forage crop or pasture is usually a sign of a management problem. Fertility, proper planting procedure, and harvest management are the most effective ways to maintain dense, productive pastures. Ensure adequate soil fertility and optimum pH with nitrogen-fixing legumes and applications of lime as per soil test. When establishing new pastures, ensure that you use weed-free seed on a well prepared seedbed, or use a no-till drill at the appropriate time. Also, be sure to practice good harvest management, whether grazing or haying, by leaving enough forage standing after harvest to allow for regrowth. It is especially important to rest pasture plants after grazing to allow full regrowth, thereby ensuring plant health and productivity.

Consider the following for establishing a weed-free forage crop:

• Control weeds prior to planting with successive tillage. This allows weeds to germinate, which can be killed by the next tillage. Some growers use a broad spectrum herbicide to control weeds prior to planting.
• Apply lime and fertilizers according to soil test, and incorporate with tillage.
• Prepare a good seedbed, with no large soil clumps.
• Select weed-free certified seed.
• Plant with a drill, or broadcast at a higher seeding rate and drag the field with a harrow to obtain seed to soil contact. Good seed to soil contact ensures good germination and seedling growth.
• If weeds occur in the stand, mow them high. Grasses have their growing points at the base of the plant prior to flowering, and weeds like thistles have their growing points higher on the plants. Mowing creates an environment that favors grass growth over weed growth, given proper fertility management.

Controlling Thistles in Forages

If thistles become established in a forage stand, they can be controlled through mowing, grubbing the individual plants (for small infestations), or using an herbicide. Broad-spectrum herbicides like Roundup kill all plants, not only the target species. The same goes with low-toxicity herbicides like citric and acetic acids. If these tools are used, I recommend spot treatment for best results.

The frequency of mowing for the control of thistles depends on rainfall. A single summer mowing is usually beneficial after flowering but before the seeds set. However, additional clippings will be required if later summer rain results in significant lush weed regrowth. Mowing after flowering but before seed set will reduce weed seed production and decrease the amount of weed seeds in the soil for the following year. Perennial weeds, like thistles or dock, should be mowed successively throughout the grazing season to starve the plant and reduce seed production. Note that many plants, like thistles, will continue to set flowers after they have been mown, and will usually set them closer to the ground after mowing. To compensate for this, mow perennial weeds high to clip flowers to minimize seed production and prevent the plant from setting subsequent flowers low to the ground.

Non-Selective Herbicides for Weeds

For a natural herbicide recommendation, you might try a citrus oil, vinegar, and soap mixture. The citric acid and acetic acid works to desiccate the leaves, and the soap acts as a sticking agent. This herbicide is only a "burn down" chemical, and will not kill the whole plant. Repeated treatments will be necessary to use up the energy reserves in the roots as they resprout.

Low toxicity herbicides are available from several suppliers. Scythe, produced by Dow AgroSciences, is made from fatty acids. Scythe acts fast as a broad-spectrum herbicide, and results can often be seen in as little as five minutes. It is used as a post-emergent herbicide, sprayed directly on the foliage. It is primarily a burn-down herbicide, has no residual activity, and is not effective on non-green, woody portions of plants.

Vinegar is an ingredient in several new herbicides on the market today. Burnout and Bioganic are two available brands. Both of these are post-emergent burndown herbicides. They are sprayed onto the plant to burn off top growth—hence the concept "burndown." As for any root-killing activity with these two herbicides, I cannot say. The label on Burnout states that perennials like thistle may regenerate after a single application and require additional treatment.

Researchers in Maryland tested 5% and 10% acidity vinegar for effectiveness in weed control. They found that older plants required a higher concentration of vinegar to kill them. At the higher concentration, they got an 85 to 100% kill rate. A 5% solution burned off the top growth with 100% success. Household vinegar is about 5% acetic acid. Burnout is 23% acetic acid. Bioganic contains 10% acetic acid plus clove oil, thyme oil, and sodium lauryl sulfate. AllDown contains acetic acid, citric acid, garlic, and yucca extract. Matran 2 contains 50% clove oil. Vinegar is corrosive to metal sprayer parts—the higher the acidity, the more corrosive. Plastic equipment is recommended for applying vinegar.

According to a study conducted in California by the UC Statewide IPM Program comparing several non-synthetic herbicides with Roundup Pro, following herbicides might prove effective in controlling broadleaf weeds like thistle.

Eco-Exempt is a contact, non-selective, broad spectrum, foliar-applied herbicide that will only control actively growing green vegetation. The active ingredients are 2-phenethyl propionate and eugenol (clove oil). 2-phenethyl propionate is considered a minimum risk pesticide by the EPA, is exempt from EPA pesticide registration (as are the following products with the exception of Roundup Pro), and is in the same risk classification as cinnamon oil, citric acid, clove oil, and corn gluten meal. In a California study, Eco-Exempt was reported to have minimal effect on broadleaf weeds.

Matran 2, like Eco-Exempt, is a contact, non-selective, broad spectrum, foliar-applied herbicide that will only control actively growing green vegetation. The active ingredients are clove leaf oil and wintergreen oil. Matran 2 had a significant effect on broadleaf weeds in a California study.

AllDown is a non-selective herbicide composed of citric acid, garlic, acetic acid, and yucca extracts. In the California study, AllDown provided the best control of broadleaf weeds after Roundup Pro.

Burnout II is another non-selective herbicide composed of citric acid and clove oil. In the California study, Burnout II had the second best control of broadleaf weeds after AllDown and Roundup Pro.

Roundup Pro is a postemergent, broad-spectrum, systemic herbicide with no soil residual activity, with glyphosate as the active ingredient. Roundup Pro had the highest percent control of broadleaf weeds in the California study. Although the Roundup Pro label states that it has no residual activity in the soil, it is moderately persistent in soil, in that it is readily adsorbed to soil colloidal matter. But since it has no pre-emergent activity, crops can be planted directly following application with no harm to seedlings. Glyphosate is degraded in the environment primarily by soil microbiological activity, and studies have indicated that it has no significant effect on soil microorganisms.

The non-synthetic herbicides mentioned above can be purchased from the following dealer:

Peaceful Valley Farm and Garden Supply, Grass Valley, CA, 1-888-784-1722
http://www.groworganic.com/browse_442_Herbicides.html

References

(1) Scythe Pesticide Label
http://www.greenbook.net/Docs/Label/L75204.pdf

(2) Bioganic Weed and Grass Killer
http://www.biconet.com/lawn/infosheets/BioWeedGrass.pdf

(3) Eco-Exempt EC Pesticide Label
http://www.biconet.com/lawn/infosheets/EcoExempt/ExemptHCLabel.pdf

(4) Resource Guide for Organic Insect and Disease Management, Cornell University
http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/pp/resourceguide/appendix/appendix_e.php

(5) Evaluation of Least Toxic Herbicides, Cheryl Wilen and Phil Boise, UC Statewide IPM Program
http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/filelibrary/2017/19351.ppt#1

(6) Matran 2 Pesticide Label
http://www.biconet.com/lawn/infosheets/MatranLabel.pdf

(7) AllDown Green Chemistry Herbicide Technical Specifications Factsheet
http://www.alldownherbicide.com/assets/AllDown_Spec.PDF

(8) Burnout II Pesticide Label
http://www.biconet.com/lawn/infosheets/BurnOut_Conc.pdf

(9) Roundup Pro Pesticide Label*
http://www.greenbook.net/Docs/Label/L54932.pdf

(10) Environmental Fate of Glyphosate, Jeff Schuette, CA Department of Pesticide Regulation, 1998
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/fatememo/glyphos.pdf

S.H.
Pennsylvania

Answer: Thank you for contacting ATTRA for information on using compost teas to control brown rot. I cannot answer your question directly because both scientific and anecdotal evidence indicate that you cannot gain a commercial level (or, in the East, practically any level) of brown rot control with compost tea.

Monilinia fructicola, the causal agent of brown rot on stone fruits, is very difficult to control, especially in the humid eastern half of the United States. If you haven't already done so, I urge you to go to our publication on organic and low-spray peach production, http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/peach.html. In that publication it explains why brown rot is so very hard to control in the East.

And if you look at California organic peach grower Carl Rosato's data (http://ofrf.org/funded/reports/rosato_92-26.pdf (PDF/2.9MB)), you'll see that even in the arid West, he did NOT get acceptable commercial-level control of brown rot with compost teas.

There is even data to suggest that compost tea sprays could make the brown rot worse! Dr. Linda Chalker-Scott at Washington State University (an organic gardener in her personal life) found that compost tea sprays increased the brown rot when sprayed on cherries. See: Dr. Linda Chalker-Scott, The Myth of Compost Tea Revisited. (PDF/31KB)

To unravel the myth and the truth of compost teas as disease suppressants, you might want to go to the web site at Evergreen College (in the state of Washington and very supportive of organic farming) for an excellent powerpoint slide show on the use of compost teas as fungicides/bactericides.

Also, you might find this website article (PDF/198.5KB) illuminating. This is a great review article from a Canadian organic research group which summarizes 27 studies using compost tea as a disease suppressant. The conclusions were very mixed. Sometimes it worked and sometimes it didn't. The variability depended on the nature of the target organism, whether the tea was aerobic or anaerobic, the components of the original compost, etc. In the case of brown rot on stone fruit, only one study suggested any significant control; most suggested no control or even the opposite.

In short, especially if you're trying to grow peaches organically as a commercial enterprise, I would strongly suggest that you rely on sulfur or sulfur/Surround WP (kaolin clay) mix as described in our peach publication. Perhaps in the future, a specific compost tea recipe will be formulated which gives consistent commercial-level control of brown rot on peaches; until then, proceed with caution.

G.C.
Missouri

Answer: Thank you for your recent request for information from ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service regarding factors that affect tomato flavor.

Nutrients:
A recent article from the University of Wisconsin e-Extension web site says that high levels of soil phosphorus have been shown to increase sugar concentrations of fruits and vegetables while decreasing acidity. “High levels of soil potassium often have a positive effect on the quality of vegetables. Increased soil potassium concentrations have been shown to increase the vitamin C and titratable acidity concentrations of vegetables and improve vegetable color. Potassium also decreases blotchy ripening of tomato (Silva, 2008).” In contrast, too much nitrogen may lower fruit sugar content and acidity in tomatoes. Referenced below is an article that describes the different nutrient factors that affect tomato flavor.

Varietal influence:
As you are aware the varieties of tomatoes also influence their flavor. Certain varieties are more suited for the longer-term storage that is essential for marketing to larger wholesale outlets. Other varieties may optimize taste, essential for the post harvest quality of vegetables going to farmers markets or CSA’s.

When planning which vegetable varieties to grow on your farm, it is important to consider which harvest windows are needed. Vegetables harvested at the incorrect stage of maturity will have a significant decrease in postharvest quality. Quality characteristics such as texture, fiber and consistency are greatly affected by stage of maturity at harvest. This is the case with many store-bought tomatoes.

Open-pollinated (or heirloom) tomatoes generally offer the richest flavors, plus you can save their seeds to plant in future seasons. Hybrid tomato breeding focuses on the needs of commercial producers who favor tomatoes that resist diseases and ship well, often allowing flavor to take a back seat.

That being said, there are plenty of hybrid tomatoes that combine good flavor with disease resistance. Referenced below is an article from Mother Earth News that describes their survey of growers that rated their “best tasting” heirloom and hybrid tomato varieties. This list may help with your seed order next season.

Another factor to consider pre-harvest, is the amount of water your tomatoes are getting. Adequate soil moisture during this period is essential for the maintenance of postharvest quality. Water stress during the growing season can affect the size of the fruit, and lead to soft or dehydrated fruit that is more prone during storage.

References:

Silva, E. 2008. Influence of preharvest factors on postharvest quality. In Wholesale success: a farmer's guide to selling, postharvest handling, and packing produce (Midwest edition).

Mikkelsen, R.L. 2005. Tomato Flavor and Plant Nutrition: a Brief Review. Better Crops. Volume 89; No. 2.

Pleasant, Barbara. 2008. America’s Favorite Tomatoes. Mother Earth News. Feb./ March 2008.

H.V.
Pennsylvania

Answer: Thank you for contacting ATTRA for information on Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) native pollinator programs.

Please see the NRCS Technical Note, "Using Farm Bill Programs for Pollinator Conservation" (PDF/3.1MB).

This guide lists several NRCS programs that provide assistance for establishing native pollinator habitats. The main site for pollinators is:
http://www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/pollinators.html. There is lots of great information on this site. I would also recommend that you contact your local NRCS office to gather further details about the programs and how to apply.

Other helpful resources are ATTRA's Alternative Pollinator publication and the Xerces Society.

B.J.
California

Answer: Thank you for requesting information from ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service, regarding organic poultry production.

Regarding the source of organic poultry, the national organic standards are as follows:
§ 205.236 Origin of livestock.
(a) Livestock products that are to be sold, labeled, or represented as organic must be from livestock under continuous organic management from the last third of gestation or hatching: Except, That:
(1) Poultry. Poultry or edible poultry products must be from poultry that has been under continuous organic management beginning no later than the second day of life;

This means that you may purchase day-old chicks that have been produced from conventional hens. The chicks must be managed organically starting in the second day of life, even if you are only selling the eggs produced by those hens. You mentioned that you already have 100 chickens and ducks. They can not be converted to organic, and their eggs may not be sold as organic. If you decide to convert your flock, you must start with newly-hatched birds.

One important aspect of organic management is the use of organic feed. Regarding the use of organic feed:
§ 205.237 Livestock feed.
(a) The producer of an organic livestock operation must provide livestock with a total feed ration composed of agricultural products, including pasture and forage, that are organically produced and handled by operations certified to the NOP,…

This means that organic chickens must be fed organic feed, and they must be provided with access to the outdoors. The outdoor land area must be certified organic, which requires a 3-year transition period. More specifically, the land is eligible for organic status 36 months after the last application of prohibited fertilizers or pesticides.

If organic animals eat their bedding, it must also be organic. Regarding the need for organic straw for the chickens:

§ 205.239 Livestock living conditions.
(b) The producer of an organic livestock operation must establish and maintain year-round livestock living conditions which accommodate the health and natural behavior of animals, including:
(3) Appropriate clean, dry bedding. When roughages are used as bedding, they shall have been organically produced in accordance with this part by an operation certified under this part.

This means that the animal bedding must be organic if the chickens are eating it.

For more information see the publication Organic Poultry Production in the United States.

F.W.
Kentucky

Answer: Thank you for your recent request for information from ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. I am pleased to provide you with information on the application of compost.

There are several different thoughts on when the best time to apply compost is. Although several factors attribute to these differences, the main factor in deciding when to apply compost to the soil depends on the compost's condition, age, and degree to which the composting process is complete. Nutrients in the compost are released slowly and small amounts are available to germinating and young crops. If compost is applied too early before a crop is planted, nutrients may escape in to the air. Incorporating compost in to the soil close to planting time allows for the release of nutrients to take place in the soil.

Unfinished compost will continue to generate heat and decompose. This compost is best applied in the fall of the year so that it is ready to supply nutrients to spring planted crops. The preferred time to apply fully matured compost is around the time of seeding or transplanting. For a single crop, the compost can be applied a few weeks in advance. For succession plantings, it is best to apply the compost just before planting. It is recommended that the closer to the planting time the compost is applied, the finer it should be and more thoroughly incorporated into the soil.

Although compost is most often applied to an entire field or plot at one time, it is important to have a crop plan as some vegetable crops react differently to compost. For example, research suggests that tomatoes, cabbages, and most root crops yield better with compost applications taking place every-other-year, while beans, peas, corn, and squash do better with a compost application each year. In fact, applying compost to some crops should be avoided in the same season. This includes potatoes, which have a greater tendency to scab, and carrots as compost can cause them to become "hairy." A crop plan will allow you to plan your crop rotations accordingly. For example, you can apply compost prior to a planting of beans followed by tomatoes the following year that do not receive a compost treatment.

Based on the information you have provided regarding your plantings of fall cover crops, you can either apply the compost before the cover crops are seeded or in the spring once the cover crops are terminated and you are preparing for spring planting.

C.G.
Wisconsin

Answer: Thank you for your recent request for information from ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. I am pleased to provide you with information on plans for aquaponics systems.

Two authoritative guidebooks with details on system design and construction are:

The Aquaponics Guidebook
404.963.5998 or 404.421.1894
An online publication ($19.95 PDF download) covering the basic functional models of aquaponics, the potential for growth of a new industry, how to think about a contained balanced ecosystem, financial models and potential for business development, designing your own system (what you need to know), strategies for growing your system overtime, a step-by-step guide to getting your bacterial culture started, active links take you to key product websites, and a link to in-depth government knowledge bases about finance and science.

Aquaponic Food Production
Nelson and Pade, Inc
608-297-8708
$29.95. The process, system components, system designs, daily operation and maintenance, and more.

Aquaponics Overview
Nelson and Pade, Inc
608-297-8708
Detailed information on aquaponics, including instructions for building a mini-system available online at https://www.aquaponics.com/articles/buildminiaquaponics.php
Nelson and Pade also offers several systems for sale. Details are available at https://www.aquaponics.com/systems/aquaponicssystems.php

Southern Regional Aquaculture Center
Recirculating Aquaculture and Aquaponic Systems publications
The SRAC offers the following publications as free PDF downloads:
• SRAC 0451 Recirculating Aquaculture Tank Production Systems: An Overview of Critical Considerations
• SRAC 0452 Recirculating Aquaculture Tank Production Systems: Management of Recirculating Systems
• SRAC 0453 Recirculating Aquaculture Tank Production Systems: Component Options
• SRAC 0454 Recirculating Aquaculture Tank Production Systems: Aquaponics Integrating Fish and Plant Culture
• SRAC 0456 The Economics of Recirculating Tank Systems: A Spreadsheet for Individual Analysis
• SRAC 4500 Partitioned Aquaculture Systems
• SRAC 4501 Constructing a Simple and Inexpensive Recirculating Aquaculture System (RAS) for Classroom Use

B.A.
Kansas

Answer: Thank you for your recent request for information from ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. I am pleased to provide you with information on the use of molasses for weed control.

Molasses is a byproduct from the processing of sugar from sugar cane and sugar beets. It is used as a food additive and in agricultural as a supplement in livestock feed, as a soil amendment, and as a natural herbicide. For agriculture purposes, there tends not to be a difference between cane molasses and beet molasses as both types have the same amount of calories as sugar; about 16 calories per teaspoon (1). The difference found in molasses and to consider for use as a soil amendment and for weed control is whether or not it has been treated with sulfur. Treating molasses with sulfur results in the fortification of iron, calcium, and magnesium. Some farmers feel that applying sulfured molasses is an organic way to add these nutrients to the soil. However, many researchers, such as Dr. Elaine Ingham (www.soilfoodweb.com), have found that sulfured molasses can have significant effects on soil biology. This can have damaging effects when applying molasses for weed control.

There are two methods for using molasses for weed control. The first method focuses on applying molasses as a soil amendment that will feed soil organisms. By boosting soil microbial activity, more nitrates are taken up and biomass created. As a result, the soil is healthier which makes it harder for weeds to compete with desired plants. Studies have shown that the amount of molasses applied affects the activity of soil bacteria and fungi. These studies indicate that lower application rates promote more fungi while increased application rates favor bacterial activity (1). However, too much molasses increases the potash content in the soil. This can make calcium unavailable and help weeds thrive.

The second method for using molasses for controlling weeds is to apply it directly as an herbicide. This can be done by directly applying the molasses or by adding it to water or a calcium/water mixture. There are two trains of thoughts as to why the calcium mixture works. The first considers using molasses directly on the plants where the weed control is affective through the “burning” of the plants. The other train of thought considers the basis for this practice a modification of soil surface conditions that prevents weeds from germinating (2). The calcium and sugar solution reduces soil crusting and compaction, conditions that weeds flourish in. This practice tends to rely on being applied primarily to the soil surface as a pre-emergent, optimally following the drilling of a crop or at lay by following the last cultivation.

There are several recommendations for the amount of molasses to apply. As a feed for soil organisms, it is recommended to apply 2-4 oz. of liquid molasses per gallon of water or 20 lbs. of dry molasses per 1,000 square feet. As an herbicide, 40 lbs. of dry molasses per 1,000 square feet or one cup per gallon of water is suggested. For a calcium/molasses mixture, 2 gallons of liquid calcium and 2 gallons of molasses in 20 gallons of water is needed (2). Repeat applications may be necessary.

References:

1. Moore, Robert. 2009. Molasses. Rockport, Texas: The Soil Guy. Retrieved July 9, 2010.

2. Diver, Steve. 2005. ATTRA Case Letter 62545. Fayetteville, AR: NCAT.

C.G.
Texas

Answer: Thank you for your recent request for information from ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. I am pleased to provide you with information on using high tunnels for vegetable production in warm season climates.

High tunnels are used in southern climates to protect crops from pests, extreme solar radiation, and inclement weather. These high tunnels, which are commonly used throughout the Middle East, South America, and the southern U.S., differ in their primary use for season extension. This is opposed to the use of high tunnels in temperate regions where high tunnels provide warmer growing environments so that the growing season can be extended earlier in the spring, later in the fall, and possibly throughout the winter.

Due to the difference in use from temperate climates, high tunnels in more tropical weather conditions require somewhat different designs and construction. As with any high tunnel, the underlying factor in the design is ventilation. For a passively ventilated roof, it is suggested that the area of the roof vent be 20% of the floor area and located on the leeward side of the high tunnel. In addition, ventilation can be achieved through roll-up or roll-down sides. In fact, in many tropical areas, insect netting is used for the sides of the structure which allows for better ventilation.

One option to consider for reducing the amount of light and heat in a high tunnel is to use shade cloth rather than a plastic film. Shade cloth is a strong polyethylene fabric that can be purchased in different densities, usually between 30% to 80%. Shade cloth provides ventilation, improves light diffusion, and reflects heat, all of which help keep the high tunnel cool. A 30% density shade cloth can reduce the air temperature by 4 degrees Fahrenheit. The reduction in light intensity is beneficial to crops such as lettuce and greens. A further reduction in temperature can be achieved with the shade cloth by using sprinkler irrigation or mist.

Several growers have been able to reduce temperatures even more than with a shade cloth by using an aluminum reflective shade. These fabrics contain an anti-oxidation coating that cools the high tunnel. Some growers claim they can achieve a temperature reduction of 15 degrees Fahrenheit by using an aluminum-based shade cloth.

The web site high tunnels.org (www.hightunnels.org) is a great resource for high tunnel growers. It provides information on growing in a high tunnel, resources and suppliers, as well as a list serve. You may be able to find information on using a high tunnel in your region and can also post any questions you may have to the group. In addition, the resource section contains several suppliers of shade cloth and aluminum fabrics, such as FarmTek (http://www.farmtek.com). One supplier you may want to investigate is Haygrove (http://www.haygrove.co.uk/). These unique three season high tunnels are becoming very popular amongst fruit and vegetable growers and may be of interest to you. Although based out of the UK, Haygrove does have a dealer and warehouse located in Pennsylvania (http://www.tunnelbuzz.com).

Finally, I’d like to pass along the link to greenhouse consulting company that specializes in tropical vegetable production: http://cuestaroble.com/tropicalgreenhouse.aspx. This site contains information on constructing and growing in high tunnels located in tropical areas.

F.E.
New Mexico

Answer: Thank you for your question about rearing ladybugs. I have pasted an excerpt from the book, BENEFICIAL INSECTS - HOW TO MASS-REAR FOR A PROFIT because is addresses your question rather well. As this excerpt notes, most ladybugs sold commercially are collected, not reared.

Begin Excerpt: Is the above a misnomer? Perhaps, but a few people are trying to rear ladybugs. If their efforts prove successful, it will be a boon to the ladybug industry. Ladybugs sold today are from the wild where they cluster together by the thousands when the weather turns cold. They're brought in and sold to the public. Most of the time this is done in a slipshod manner.

Wild ladybugs are often infected with parasites - up to 20% of them. Also when they're sold without being pre-conditioned the ladybugs fly away from the release area and the customer has spent his money for nothing. This procedure doesn't bode well for good business relations.

Those growers who try to do better pre-condition the ladybugs with food and also weed out the parasitized ladybugs. Then the handler has a reasonably healthy crop to sell to the customer. Pre-conditioning helps satisfy the ladybug's instinct to fly away upon release. Even with a heavy aphid population at hand, a recently released ladybug taken from the wild will fly away.

Pre-conditioning entails surrounding the captured ladybugs with a large tent-like structure and feeding them well. The food is usually wheast or other preparations. Both of these activities satisfy the ladybug's tendency to fly away and keep them in good health where they are ready to lay their eggs as soon as the customer applies them to his crops. Unless you get your ladybugs already pre-conditioned, this should be the procedure you should use if you also deal in ladybugs.

ARE THEY WORTH ANYTHING?
The value of ladybugs to the customer is that each adult will consume as much as 5,000 aphids! They are indeed voracious eaters and have a variety of pest insects upon which they will feed. These include the Colorado potato beetle larvae as well as may kinds of aphids and thrips.

Ladybug larvae which look like little alligators with orange spots have an appetite just as great as the adult's. A ladybug larva will consume 50 or more aphids a day.
Ladybugs will lay up to 50 eggs per day. If conditions are good, the ladybug will lay a total of up to 1500 eggs. The eggs are laid on the bottom side of plant leaves. Within 2 to 5 days the larvae will hatch out and live for three weeks. At the end of that time they will pupate. It then takes about 4 days for them to emerge as adults.
The ideal temperature for ladybugs is between 62 and 80 degrees. If the temperature goes lower than 55 degrees ladybugs will slow down and not fly. They can be kept in storage for up to three weeks at a temperature of 40 degrees Fahrenheit. The relative humidity should be around 70 per cent.

IS IT POSSIBLE TO REAR THEM?

Perhaps. Here is a suggested way of going about it. If you try this method do so on a limited scale. Make sure it works before going whole hog at it. One producer has been raising ladybugs on Angoumois grain moth eggs for well over a year. To do this you would have to construct an open type setup. You would first make an enclosure which would keep the ladybugs and their larvae inside. This enclosure could be some sort of netting with holes too small for either the adult or the larvae to get through. The enclosure should be large enough to allow the adults to fly around inside.

You would have to have a means of feeding them. Sheets of waterproofed paper with smears of wheast could be hanging about. Also cotton balls which have been wetted down with water should be hanging here and there. Also there should be selected areas where the larvae might get a drink. Overall even this strategy would be difficult to maintain. How to collect them or their eggs? Difficult under this plan.

You can't keep them cooped up like you do with lacewing or Trichogramma. Ladybugs must have room to fly. Perhaps you can come up with a practical scheme. I don't see any problems with the feeding part of it; you could supplement with meal worms which you can raise yourself.

THE MAIN PROBLEMS WOULD BE SETUP AND SANITATION:

It would be difficult to sterilize a setup as outlined above. If you get your ladybugs from a supplier, be sure to get those which have been pre-conditioned and which don't have parasites. Be on guard for parasites anyway and get rid of them immediately if you find any. Remember: a satisfactory and sterile setup is mandatory. As an aside, a parasitized ladybug is immobile. It's alive but cannot move. The parasite is inside.

Since ladybugs are sold to the customer as adults, you would have to have a way to collect them. Perhaps by temporarily lowering the temperature to that listed above you could immobilize them to where they could be collected and sold.
But let's face it. This is all conjecture. The results of that one producer who says he's rearing ladybugs are not known. Ladybugs at present are still taken from the wild. Sometimes they're pre-conditioned and de-parasitized.
In the final analysis, this is something a producer would do when curiosity got the best of him. End of Excerpt.

Biology
Ladybugs live approximately one year. They hatch during April and May and immediately start to eat insects. The larva grow to about half an inch in length and look like small alligators, dark gray in color, with orange spots. After they reach full size, they go into a molting condition, clinging to weeds, grass stems, bark and leaves. After a few days their backs slit open and adult ladybugs emerge. Hippodamia convergens is the most common variety of ladybug. It grows to about 3/10" long, and is reddish brown with 13 black spots and two oblique white stripes just in back of the head.

Purchased Ladybugs: Release Instructions
Ladybugs will become dormant at low temperatures and may at first appear dead. As they warm up they become active. They will require water after their long dormancy, so sprinkle or irrigate gently before releasing them. If your ladybugs have been in storage for a long time, it is very helpful to feed them prior to release. Your local nursery may carry feed for ladybugs; a mixture of honey and bee pollen can also be used. Apply the food source to the screening of the ladybug case so they can feed on it prior to release. Ladybugs received during March, April, and May will be nearing the end of their life cycle and should not be refrigerated for long. If possible, release them the evening of the day they arrive. Do not release ladybugs during the heat of the day or while the sun is shining. Refrigerate them until it is nearly completely dark. If you do this, you will find them busily ridding your garden of pests the day after they are received. To prevent ladybugs from flying away, some growers spray a mixture of equal parts water and carbonated soft drink on their ladybugs immediately before releasing them. This sticky mixture glues their wings together for a day or two, discouraging them from flying away. For best results, place a few ladybugs around flowers, shrubs, and trees each day and keep the remaining ladybugs in the refrigerator. Do not allow ladybugs to freeze. In large fields, scatter the ladybugs in a central area and in spots where pest infestations are greatest. Ladybugs may be used successfully indoors, but must be released at night to prevent them from flying away. It may be desirable to screen the entrances to greenhouses or indoor areas to prevent the ladybugs from flying away before they have laid more eggs. Female ladybugs require a nectar and pollen source in order to mature and lay eggs. It is very important to have plant diversity, including a mixture of flowering plants, to provide this. If natural nectars and pollens are not available in sufficient quantities, provide an alternate source of food, such as those available at nurseries.

Amounts Required
You will receive an average of 70,000 ladybugs per gallon, or 18,000 per quart. Generally, one quart of ladybugs will suffice for a large garden, but you may want to use more if pest density is high. Use one gallon for up to three acres. In orchards, use one gallon per acre. Grain crops may require as little as one gallon for every 10 acres. For melons and cucumbers, use one gallon for every 15 acres. For artichokes, use about 1 gallon for 10 acres. For alfalfa, a gallon for 10 acres around the time of the last frost is normally enough for the first release; after each cutting, a gallon for 15 acres is usually sufficient. For aphid control in corn, use one gallon for 10 acres.

References:

Saffell, H.L. 2009. Rearing Ladybugs? http://www.mayhillpress.com/ladybug.html

C.C.
Florida

Answer: Thank you for your recent request for information from ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service regarding mist irrigation tools to maintain vegetative cuttings.

A sprinkling system based from drip tube lines, called “micro-irrigation” would work well for cuttings and propagation. This system requires at least 15 psi, but 20-30 psi would get the best results and a finer mist. Dripworks, a drip supply company based in California, has many micro-irrigation spray nozzles (mini jets) that fit into a standard drip line. The mini jets have a 10/32 threaded base and fit into 1/4" tubing, a stake system, rigid risers or pop up risers. Below, under further resources, is a link to the micro-irrigation section of their web site. The pictures help to illustrate the different systems that a mini-jet fits into. This section of their web site also features a video that helps illustrate many of the concepts outlined in this section.

To do this intermittently throughout the day, you would have to set up a timer. Simple timers are available from most landscape and irrigation supply companies for under $50.00. You may also be able to purchase the micro-irrigation spray nozzles from local irrigation suppliers. I included information from Drip works, specifically, because their online catalog demonstrated the micro-irrigation system quite well.

Further Resources:

Dripworks Microirrigation page.

Dripworks online store:
http://www.dripworksusa.com/store/sprayer.php
DripWorks, Inc.
190 Sanhedrin Circle
Willits, CA 95490
(800) 522-3747

M.R.
Arkansas

Answer: Thank you for your recent request for information from ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. I am pleased to provide you with information on developing a whole farm plan for transitioning to organic beef cattle production.

In this letter I have provided some of the best resources for farm planning and organic transition that are available. These materials will help you evaluate your organic beef enterprise, develop a farm management plan, and prepare for organic transition.

Whole farm planning allows you to evaluate your resources and formulate a management plan to use those resources to generate income on your farm. Expenditures to manage resources are based on the return on investment of each expenditure, and must be evaluated for each specific management scenario. Evaluation is based on monitoring the response of the natural resources to expenditures and necessitates matching the livestock enterprise to management of the resources, both natural resources and management resources. How well you evaluate your resources, formulate an action plan with the information, and monitor resource use will determine the success of your farm.

The ATTRA Beef Farm Sustainability Checksheet provides you with a starting point, and will help you focus on those areas that need attention to move you toward your goals. Remember that every year is different and monitoring of the whole farm from season to season and year to year is important in order to see those differences.

A whole farm assessment and the development of a whole farm plan involves critical analysis of the following aspects of the beef operation:

1. Farm Goals – including income, retirement, family goals, and lifestyle
2. Farm Management – including business planning, recordkeeping, and marketing
3. Cattle Program – including reproduction, health, breeding, genetics, animal selection, and nutrition
4. Forage Program – including soil fertility, forage species selection, grazing system planning, harvested forages, and weed control

Farm Goals and Management

To help in the creation of a holistic business plan rooted in personal, community, economic and environmental values, I recommend a look at Building a Sustainable Business: A Guide to Developing a Business Plan for Farms and Rural Businesses (MISA, 2010). It can be accessed online at http://www.misa.umn.edu/vd/bizplan.html or you can obtain a copy for $17 by calling the Minnesota Institute for Sustainable Agriculture office at 612-625-8235 or 800-909-6472.

Cattle Program

There are many good resources available to assist you in evaluating your cattle program, including extension resources in your state. However, information on organic beef production is much less available, so I offer several publications that deal specifically with organic beef.

Cattle Production: Considerations for Pasture-Based Beef and Dairy Producers, ATTRA 2006
Overview of grass-based cattle production, with information on health, feeding, organics, and includes and extensive resource list.

Ruminant Nutrition for Graziers, National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service (ATTRA). 2008.
Information on utilizing pasture as the primary source of nutrition, including the nutritional aspects of grazing livestock with minimal use of concentrated supplements.

Livestock Behaviour, Design of Facilities and Humane Slaughter. Grandin Livestock Handling System, Inc. Temple Grandin, Ph.D. http://www.grandin.com/
Temple Grandin is a recognized leader in the design of efficient and effective livestock handling systems. This site includes publications on handling system design and the how-to of proper livestock handling.

Forage Program

Pasture is the basis of sustainable beef production, and there are some very good resources available to assist you in planning your forage and grazing program.

Pastures: Going Organic. ATTRA, 2006.

Pasture & Range Information, The Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation
Extensive research-based information on forage and pasture management in the Oklahoma-Arkansas-Missouri-Texas region.

Publications Relating to Pasture and Hayland, USDA-NRCS
Technical notes, plant guides, articles, research, and other valuable publications from the NRCS.

NRCS Grazing Lands
http://www.glti.nrcs.usda.gov/
Publications, economic tools, practice standards, all for use by grassland managers and graziers.

Southern Forages, 4th Ed. International Plant Nutrition Institute, 2007.
Practical and reliable source of information on modern forage crop management.

Extending Grazing and Reducing Stored Feed Needs, Grazing Lands Conservation Initiative Publication, 2008.
Strategies that can be used in some or many areas to extend grazing and reduce stored feed needs, thus increasing profit.

Grazing Systems Planning Guide, The University of Minnesota Extension Service. 2003.
Highly recommended for developing a grazing system and pasture management plan. Includes worksheets and recordkeeping forms that are valuable for graziers.

Electric Fencing for Serious Graziers. Columbia, MO: Missouri Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2005.
Detailed instructions and diagrams on building electric fencing systems for graziers.

Watering Systems for Serious Graziers. Columbia, MO: Missouri Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2006.
Detailed instructions and diagrams on building livestock watering systems for graziers.

Organic Transition

The holistic principles of organic agriculture are derived from two complementary perspectives. First, organic agriculture is characterized as a biologically-based production system based on natural principles and demonstrating a high degree of sustainability. Second, it is a system that endeavors to preserve the integrity of organic production from contamination with prohibited substances and commingling with non-organic products. In order to meet the biological and ecological demands that define organic agriculture, and to ensure compliance to laws and regulations that serve to foster organic system integrity, conversion to organic production requires the development of an organic system plan. Organic certification of the land requires a transitional period of three years from the last application of a restricted substance. However, yearly inspections and updated applications must be performed to remain in compliance.

Some recommended resources for organic transition are listed below:

National Organic Program, USDA-AMS.

Organic Certification Process. ATTRA, 2005.

Organic System Plans: Livestock Production. ATTRA, 2006.

NCAT's Organic Livestock Workbook – A Guide to Sustainable and Allowed Practices. NCAT, 2004.

Organic Livestock & Grazing Resources, Northeast Organic Farming Association of Vermont. 2007.

G.J.
Indiana

Answer: Thank you for your recent request for information from ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. I am pleased to provide you with information on cover crops and crop rotations for organic vegetable production.

Cover Crops:
Cover cropping is another way to minimize off-farm inputs (1). Cover crops are soil-building crops that are not harvested, but are composted or tilled back into the soil. They can be part of a crop rotation, or can be used to prevent soil erosion and improve fertility. When choosing a cover crop you need to make several considerations. There are many ways to use cover crops in a production cycle:

• as a main crop during the primary growing season. Used as a rotational crop, the cover will exclude production of a cash crop.
• as a companion crop, or living mulch, the cover is planted between the rows of the cash crop—for example pumpkins interplanted with white clover.
• as a 'catch' crop for nutrients, planted after harvest of the main crop or between the rows of the cash crop to reduce leaching of nutrients.
• as an off-season crop grown to protect the soil, usually during the winter when there is no main crop—this is not the case in your farm, of course. This is the most common practice in temperate areas.

Crop Rotations:
A rotation plan used in conjunction with cover cropping and compost is an ideal way for a vegetable farmer to increase fertility and organic matter, while minimizing off farm inputs.

In general, many farmers use the season in which the cash crop is produced as a rotation tool. E.g. Spring/ fall crops, winter crops, short season cucurbits, solanaceous crops, etc. Farmers will often plant these “types” of crops in blocks and rotate the entire block each year. E.g. The winter crops of radishes, arugula, lettuce, and beets are planted in block one and rotated to block two next year. This “block” system meshes well with cover cropping, as you can simply have one block in cover crops at any one time. The best way to illustrate this is with some examples. Referenced below is a publication of crop rotation sequences from several diversified vegetable farms titled Managing Crop Rotation Systems. This publication was developed by the New England Small Farm Institute in 2002 as a DACUM from several experienced farmers in the Northeast. As a result of this work, a new book has been published titled Crop Rotations on Organic Farms: A Planning Manual. Information on this book is provided in the Resource section of this letter.

Cover Crops in Annual Rotations
In annual cropping systems, cover crops are often chosen to maximize benefits such as biomass and nitrogen production. However, other factors must also be considered. For example, fitting a cover crop into the sequence of a crop rotation can be difficult. Therefore, fast-growing, drought-tolerant cover crops that require minimal management are preferred. Cover crops with fast germination and good seedling vigor are usually chosen because of their ability to compete with weeds. Also, species with the potential to reduce pest populations should be chosen, while those that harbor diseases or arthropod pests of the cash crops should be avoided.

Common cool-season legumes used as cover crops in annual rotations include vetches, winter pea and bell bean. Because clovers and medics grow slower and compete poorly with weeds and require more management (e.g., mowing), they are used less commonly used in annual rotations. For similar reasons, cereal grains are usually preferred over other grass species, such as bromes, in annual rotations. Sometimes, however, the annual cereal grains can be used as a “nurse crop” for clovers and medics. They are seeded at the same time and the cereal grains are mowed once or twice. This system gives some shelter to the clovers and helps distribute the seed evenly.

In choosing warm- season cover crops, the ability to perform well with minimal irrigation is often of primary consideration. Legume species in this category include cowpea, hyacinth bean and sunn hemp. Typical grass cover crops for warm conditions include sudangrass and sorghum (2).

Please refer to the ATTRA Publication Overview of Cover Crops and Green Manures. This publication outlines some of the cover crops used for the specific purposes as outlined above. Another excellent book is, Managing Cover Crops Profitably, by Greg Bowman, Christopher Shirley and Craig Cramer. It describes several rotation and cover crop scenarios for vegetable farms. The Nordell Farm profile is particularly inspiring for many farmers. Finally, in the document by Vern Grubinger titled “Cover Crops and Green Manures” Grubinger describes the benefits of specific cover crops.

References:

(1) Hinman, Tammy. 2007. ATTRA Case letter on cover crops and crop rotations. Butte, MT: ATTRA.

(2) Ingels, et al. 1993. Selecting the Right Cover Crop Gives Multiple Benefits. California Agriculture 43 (5):43-48.

Resources:

Sullivan, Preston. 2003. Overview of Cover Crops and Green Manures. ATTRA Publication # IP024.

Bowman, et al. 1998. Managing Cover Crops Profitably. Sustainable Agriculture Network. Handbook Series 3. Pages 36-39.

NESFI. 2002. Guide to the Expert Farmers’ DACUM Chart for “Managing Crop Rotation Systems.” Belchertown, MA: NESFI.

Grubinger, Vern. 2010. Cover Crops and Green Manures. Brattleboro, VT: University of Vermont Extension. Retrieved June 4, 2010.

Further Resources:

Greg Bowman, Christopher Shirley, Craig Cramer. 2007. Managing Cover Crops Profitably, 3rd Ed.. Sustainable Agriculture Network.
This book distills findings from published studies and on-farm experience into a user-friendly reference tool for farmers and agricultural educators. You will find detailed information on how to select cover crops to fit your farm, and how to manage them to reap multiple benefits.

Magdoff and van Es. 2000. Building Soils for Better Crops. 3rd Ed.. Sustainable Agriculture Network.
This book provides step-by-step information on soil-improving practices.

Mohler, Charles and Sue Ellen Johnson. 2009. Crop Rotation on Organic Farms. NRAES.
This Planning Manual provides an in-depth review of the applications of crop rotation-including improving soil quality and health, and managing pests, diseases, and weeds.

The above three books are available for purchase through SARE (Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education):
SARE Outreach Publications
PO Box 753
Waldorf, MD 20604-0753
Telephone: (301) 374-9696
Fax: (301) 843-0159
Email: sarepubs@sare.org
Web site: http://www.sare.org

Kroeck, Seth. 2004. Soil Resiliency and Health: Crop Rotation and Cover Cropping. Northeast Organic farming Association. http://www.nofa.org
This book renders the tool of crop rotation and its close relative, cover cropping, understandable and available for reducing crop pests and disease and building soil's nutrient level, balance and general health.

Cover Crop Seed Suppliers:
Local feed or field crop seed suppliers often carry many different cover crops. The ATTRA web site also contains a database of organic seed suppliers that includes cover crops: http://www.attra.org/attra-pub/organic_seed/

Fedco Seeds
Organic Growers Supply
PO Box 520, Waterville, ME 04903
(207) 873-7333
Call to get a catalog
Johnny's Selected Seeds
955 Benton Avenue
Winslow, Maine 04901
Toll Free: 877-Johnnys (877-564-6697)
http://www.johnnyseeds.com/Home.aspx

Peaceful Valley Farm Supply
P.O. Box 2209
Grass Valley, CA 95945
To place an order, call toll free at 1-888-784-1722.
http://www.groworganic.com/default.html

K.A.
New Jersey

Answer: Thank you for your request to ATTRA regarding fresh vs. frozen poultry.

The advantage of fresh over frozen poultry to the consumer is that of convenience since there is no need for the product to be thawed before cooking. It is also may convey the impression of a "fresher" product, or not one that has been stored for a period of time. According to the numbers in the Small-Scale Poultry Processing publication, 80% of poultry sold in the US is sold as fresh. More consumers are accustomed to buying fresh poultry, so they may turn away from frozen poultry just by habit which may create an obstacle in reaching a wider customer base. The main disadvantage of selling fresh over frozen poultry is the shorter shelf-life. You can keep frozen poultry for a longer period of time, but you also must take into account the cost of storing a frozen product. I am unaware of differences in taste qualities between fresh and frozen poultry, but if you are interested in research in this area I would advise contacting Dr. Casey Owens-Hanning of the University of Arkansas. She specializes in poultry processing and products and her research includes evaluating processing factors affecting poultry meat qualities.
Her contact information follows:
Dr. Casey Owens-Hanning
Center of Excellence for Poultry Science
POSC 0-114
University of Arkansas
Fayetteville, AR 72701
Phone: (479) 575-4281
cmowens@uark.edu

R.O.
Massachusetts

Answer: Thank you for contacting ATTRA for information on estimating the labor hours needed for a Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) farm based on the number acres or amount of sales. Following are a few resources that should help you estimate your labor needs.

There are several variables to consider when estimating labor hours, including crop mix, degree of mechanization (vs. hand labor), post-harvest handling and distribution systems, and other factors. As you can see from this Colorado State University article, your enterprise mix will affect your labor hours.

A good place to start is the labor planning section of “Building a Sustainable Business: A Guide to Developing a Business Plan for Farms and Rural Businesses” (http://www.misa.umn.edu/vd/bizplan.html, see Planning Task 4, pp. 145-148, along with Worksheet 4.18 in the Planning Task 4 Worksheets link). Note, too, a chart in the appendices section on “Direct Labor Requirements for Traditional Crop and Livestock Enterprises” – probably not the crops you’re interested in for a CSA farm, but the framework may be useful.

In addition, “Using Vegetable Budgets to Make Decisions,” presents a good overview of the budgeting process; embedded in this article are sample enterprise budgets for specific vegetable crops, which include estimated labor hours. See: www.agmrc.org/business_development/operating_a_business/budgeting/articles/using_vegetable_budgets_to_make_decisions.cfm. These estimates are based on vegetable bed production, where the only machinery used is for tilling in the spring and the rest of the labor is by hand. For larger scale vegetable production budgets, see Michigan State University’s Web site at: www.msu.edu/user/blackj/spreadsheets.htm. A few additional enterprise budgets (including labor hour considerations) are at: http://www.leopold.iastate.edu/pubs/enterprise.html.

Other farmers (especially those who keep good records) may be the ones best able to help you estimate labor hours for different enterprises.

Finally, let me refer to a couple of ATTRA pubs that may inform your process of estimating labor hour needs.
• Market Gardening: A Start Up Guide
• Community Supported Agriculture

S.H.

Georgia

Answer: Thank you for your recent request for information from ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. I am pleased to provide you with information regarding greenhouse lettuce and winter crop production and profitability.

Yield:

You mentioned wanting to have yield estimates for these crops. While this really depends on your planting scenario, the following information will help you come to a rough estimate of yields.

If you are planting mixed greens for baby salad mix, generally growers report yields of one pound of salad mix per 5 square feet of growing space this is if seeded in rows, but that is assuming lettuce is planted thickly in rows, rather than broadcast. I think the yields would be higher if the lettuce was broadcast, assuming there are little weed problems.

Below is a link to a yield estimate excerpt from the Johnny’s selected seed catalog. I find this handy for determining yield and seed budgeting. This chart is based on yields for field planted vegetables such as head lettuce, radishes, spinach, etc. –it would be higher for greenhouse planted crops.

http://www.johnnyseeds.com/assets/information/2010VegetableCharts.pdf

Marketing and economics:

Greenhouse greens through the winter are an increasingly popular and profitable crop for farmers in northern climates such as Connecticut. The issue with winter production is to insure that you will have a market to sell them at. If you already have winter markets with your other products this may not be a factor, if not I would suggest doing some “leg work” in this area. Some winter marketing considerations are:

* Are their farmers markets that go through the winter?
* Are there restaurants that would be willing to take your product through the winter? This is highly likely in your town as there are multiple restaurants that feature local food.

I would suggest looking at a few of the ATTRA publications that are relevant to this topic. I have listed links to “Selling to Restaurants” and “Specialty Lettuce and Greens Production” under further resources below.

Below, under Further resources, the University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension publication “Leafy Greens” describes marketing and economic information associated with greens production.

It is a good practice to do an enterprise budget if you are considering a new enterprise on your farm, which it sounds like you are moving towards. Below are links to some enterprise budget templates for lettuce and agricultural crops. You will have to adjust the typical costs and yield estimates for the specific crops you are interested in growing.

For Lettuce:

Rutgers Enterprise Budget Template: Costs of Production for Leaf Lettuce-Per Acre (1996)

http://aesop.rutgers.edu/~farmmgmt/ne-budgets/organic/leaf-lettuce.html

Loose Leaf Lettuce Production: Sample costs and Profitability Analysis; University of California Extension (Based on Southern California, so some of the yields may be different.

http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8031.pdf

General Production:

North Carolina State University Extension has extensive enterprise budget templates gathered from national resources.

http://www.ncmarketready.org/enterprise-budgets/vegetables.php

Also, I would recommend looking at ATTRA’s Organic Greenhouse Vegetable Production publication which has links and economic considerations for greenhouse vegetable production in general. It also includes yield information. This publication is listed below under Further resources.

Suggested further resources:

ATTRA Publications:

Diver, Steve. 2000. Organic Greenhouse Vegetable Production. ATTRA Publication #IP078.

http://www.attra.org/attra-pub/ghveg.html

Bachmann, J. 2004.Selling to Restaurants. ATTRA Publication #IP 255

http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/sellingtorestaurants.html

Kuepper, G. et al. 2002. Specialty Lettuce & Greens: Organic Production. ATTRA Publication #CT117.

http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/lettuce.html

Non-ATTRA resources:

New Crop Opportunities Center. 2006. Greenhouse-grown Lettuce and Greens. University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension.

http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/lettuceintro.pdf

B.C.
Minnesota

Answer: Thank you for your recent request for information from ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. I am pleased to provide you with information about cutworm and organic/ biorational control methods.

Cutworms wreak havoc during seedling and transplant establishment. Problem areas are usually found near field borders and in weedier areas. Serious losses are often associated with wet springs that have caused a delay in planting.

Cutworm species include the variegated cutworm, Peridroma saucia; black cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon; granulate cutworm, Feltia subterranea; army cutworm, Euxoa auxiliaries, and claybacked cutworm, Agrotis gladiaria. They are active at night, feeding and chewing through the stems of the seedlings. In the day they burrow underground or under clods to avoid detection. To inspect for cutworms, dig around the damaged areas during the day or come out at night with a flashlight to catch the culprits in the act. Under resources you will see a link to the Purdue University IPM web site. It has close-up color pictures of each type of cut worm. This will give you an idea of the different species and help you correctly identify them. In controlling and preventing cutworm, it is only important to know whether or not the larvae over winter (see cultural control measures below) so that you know when to time cultural and control measures.

Most overwinter as larvae in “cells” in the soil, in crop residues, or in clumps of grass. Feeding begins in spring and continues to early summer when the larvae burrow more deeply into the soil to pupate. Adults emerge from the soil one to eight weeks later, or sometimes overwinter. Most species deposit eggs on stems or behind the leaf sheaths of grasses and weeds. Eggs hatch from two days to two weeks later.

In some crops, cutworms can be extremely damaging where transplants are planted through plastic. It has been reported that the increased heat radiating out at night, particularly around the bases of the plants, attracts the larvae to the plants. Once underneath the plastic, the larvae are very difficult to control.

Cutworms have many predators and parasites that can help control their numbers. Some of these parasites and predators can be purchased or harnessed naturally through planting or conserving habitat for them.

The potential for cutworm infestations is governed in large part by the following factors:
• Planting time
• low-damp areas of the field that drain poorly,
• fall and early season weed growth, and
• the amount of surface residue.

Cultural Controls
Cutworms are a particular problem in crops that follow sods, pastures, or weedy fields in rotation. Because infestations often begin on weeds, cultivation and other weed-control programs implemented directly before planting time may increase cutworm feeding on seedling crops. Clean tillage to remove all weedy vegetation, at least ten days prior to planting, reduces the number of cutworm larvae. Control of weedy vegetation, at this same time, at field borders also reduces the number of invading larvae.

To control cutworms that overwinter as partially grown larvae (claybacked and variegated) land should be kept weed-free, particularly of broadleaf weeds, during the fall months to reduce egg-laying by cutworm moths. A small grain cover crop, such as oats that winter kill, may cut weed competition and is more in line with the principles of organic production. Crops planted on sod are prone to cutworm damage unless the land is plowed in early fall and kept weed-free for the rest of the season.

Biological Controls
Cutworm larvae have a number of natural enemies. Predators include several species of ground beetles. Parasitoids include tachinid flies and braconid wasps. Cutworms may also be attacked by fungi, bacteria, and nematodes. Understanding the biology of beneficial organisms is imperative in order to use them effectively as pest control agents. For example, insect parasitic nematodes like Steinerema carpocapsae or insect-infecting fungi like Beauveria bassiana require adequate humidity to be effective. Other predators include spiders, minute pirate bugs, damsel bugs, and lacewing larvae. Birds also prey on cutworms, so do not assume that the birds in the field are causing the seedling damage. As with other pests discussed, farmscaping is a recommended means of increasing the numbers of beneficial predators and parasites that help to keep cutworms under control. In the resources section I have listed an ATTRA publication that is a good starting point for biointensive IPM, titled Biointensive Integrated Pest Management. There is a direct link to this publication.

Alternative Pesticides & Applications
Scout for the presence of cutworm larvae early in the season, and after destruction of adjacent habitats. Cutworms are best scouted at night, when they are most active, using a flashlight. Look for cut-off or damaged seedlings and dig around the base of the plant to locate the larvae.

Bait formulations, sometimes using bran or applying rolled oats with molasses, containing Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki have been known to effectively control cutworm species when applied to the soil. Sprayed formulations may have variable results with cutworms, as the worms may not ingest enough of the toxin for it to be effective. Nightime spraying of Bacillus thuringiensis has shown to be more effective.

Research on the parasitic nematode species, Steinernematidae carpocapsae, has shown it to be a very successful control agent for cutworms, but make sure that the soil is sufficiently moist to support nematode populations (see above). I have attached to this letter a publication titled Integrated Pest Management of Greenhouse crops. While this publication is not relevant to cutworm specifically, it does list suppliers of beneficial organisms in its appendix section.

If natural pesticide applications are necessary, choose one that is least disruptive to the natural enemies. Early detection and application during the early developmental stages of the larvae (first and second instar) make these biorational pesticides more effective. For cutworm species that overwinter as larvae, this would happen in the early spring when the soil is warming. Pheromone traps will indicate when mating flights are occurring, and through degree-day calculations one can estimate egg laying and hatching. For information on degree-day calculations contact your local Extension agent. If you are truly sure that you have the black cutworm then you will want to time the Pheromone traps in the early spring to monitor when they migrate to your region. It is at this time you will be able to determine when they are in the 1st and second instar stages for most effective control with Bt and nematodes. Work with your local extension agent to determine the degree day calculations for cutworm in your area. Below under resources there is a link to places to purchase pheromone traps.

Resources:

Ruth Hazzard, Brian Caldwell, Eric Sideman, Vern Grubinger. June 17, 2004. Cutworm Management. Excerpted from University of VT Cooperative Extension Newsletter Vegetable and Berry News.

Anon. Purdue University IPM Guide. Cutworm: Multiple Species. 2006

Sources of Pheromone Traps:
Great Lakes IPM:
10220 Church Road NE, Vestaburg MI 48891
phone (517) 268-5693 or (517) 268-5911; fax (517) 268-5311
e-mail: glimpm@nethawk.com

Gempler’s:
P.O. Box 270, Belleville WI 53508
phone 800-382-8473; fax 800-551-1128

Dufour, Rex. Biointensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM)- Part One of Two
ATTRA Publication #IP049 . July 2001.

References:
Kuepper, George. Organic Field Corn Production. ATTRA Publication # CT113. January 2002.

Bessin, Ricardo. Cutworm Management in Corn. Publication # ENT-59. University of Kentucky Extension.
http://www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/ent/ent59/ent59.htm

Advisory Service. September 2002.

Flint, Mary Louise. 1990. Pests of the Garden and Small Farm. University Of California, Oakland, CA. 276 p

Buhler, W.G. and T.J. Gibb. 1994. Persistence of Steinernema carpocapsae and S. glaseri (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) as measured by their control of black cutworm (Lepi- doptera: Noctuidae) larvae in bentgrass. Journal of Economic Entomology. Vol. 87, No. 3. p. 638-642.

Ellis, Barbara W. and Fern Marshall Bradley. 1992. The Organic Gardener’s Handbook of Natural Insect and Disease Control. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA. 534 p.

P.M.

Arizona

Answer: Thank you for contacting ATTRA, I am pleased to provide you with information on systems for dryland gardening. This case letter will address information and resources for dryland gardening.

Your experience with the three sisters planting is an example of a Permaculture-based system. Permaculture originally developed in the drylands of Australia. One of the main principles is to work with nature rather than against it. The founders of Permaculture developed the Permaculture Dryland Institute as an education and research facility for dryland farming. The Institute is now named the Permaculture Institute of Austrailia and their mission has spread throughout the world, including the Permaculture Institute in New Mexico. This organization is based on promoting and developing Permaculture principles for the Southwest. Their web site contains information, links, and references to growing crops in the desert, including newsletter articles from the Permaculture Institute of Australia. For information on the Permaculture Institute and Permaculture growing techniques, please visit their web site at: http://www.permaculture.org.

A 387-page book was published in 1991 on the topic: Food From Dryland Gardens by David A. Cleveland and Daniela Soleri. Unfortunately, it is out of print, and it may be hard to find a copy. You can find articles by the same authors, however, at the website: http://ag.arizona.edu/OALS/ALN/aln29/aln29toc.html

The University of Vermont Center for Sustainable Agriculture has a program to support the farming communities of Central America and Mexico. Instructor V. Ernesto Méndez, Ph. D., is a native of El Salvador and has devoted years of research and teaching to supporting the farming communities of Central America and Mexico. For more information on his work and publications visit: http://www.uvm.edu/~emendez/.

ECHO is a not-for-profit 501 (c)(3) Christian organization headquartered in North Fort Myers, Florida. Its mission is "to network with community leaders in developing countries to seek hunger solutions for families growing food under difficult conditions."
ECHO has several publications and fact sheets on dryland farming which are available on their web site: http://www.echonet.org.

Below is a list of further resources for water conservation and dryland farming.

Further Resources:

Water conservation resources:
Rainwater Catchment guide:
This is a commercial resource that outlines some of the consideration in developing a rainwater catchment system on your property.

Kujawinski. 1978. The Homestead Cistern. Mother Earth News. May/ June 1978 Edition.
This is an archived article from Mother Earth News that includes digital images.

Oasis Design is the most reputable source of grey water recycling systems. They have a book and web site that should be helpful to you. The description on their web site is, “All about all aspects of grey water systems. Why to use them, how to choose, build and use them, regulations, studies, and examples. Includes grey water irrigation, grey water treatment, grey water filters, and indoor grey water reuse.”

Suarez, Donald. 2008. Salinity Management in Agriculture. March/ April 2008 Edition of Southwest Hydrology
This publication can be viewed in PDF format at the following link:
http://www.swhydro.arizona.edu/archive/V7_N2/feature3.pdf

Regional Resources:
Arcosanti
An experiment in sustainable design and agriculture initiated by Paul Soleri. It is located in Verde Valley Arizona. They offer tours of their gardens and facilities. There web site is at:

The New Mexico Permaculture Institute might be able to refer you to some resources. They have many resources for practicing Permacuture agriculture in the arid southwest.

The Sonoran Permaculture Guild is a group of highly committed individuals who share a common vision of making our Southwest Drylands region more sustainable through Permaculture design and implementation. They offer classes and a list of resources on rainwater harvesting, gardening and soil amendments.

Books/ articles:
Broobank, George. 1991. Desert Gardening: Fruits and Vegetables. Fisher Books, Inc.
ISBN# 1-55561-002-1

Bainbridge, David. 1994. Agroforestry in the Southwest: A Rich Past and Promising Future. Presented at the Symposium, Agroforestry and Sustainable Systems (Ft. Collins, CO, August 7-10, 1994).

Ebeling, Walter. Handbook of Indian Foods and Fibers of Arid America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. 971 pp.

Nabhan, Gary. 1989. Enduring Seeds. University of Arizona Press.
Enduring Seeds, 1989
In a series of essays about Native American agriculture and wild plant conservation, which address the importance of conserving wild plants, the difficulties Native American peoples have had in preserving their agricultural traditions and current wild plant conservation efforts in North America.
http://www.garynabhan.com/books.html

T.B.

Oklahoma

Answer: Thank you for contacting ATTRA with your request for information on your flock's diet. Please refer to the ATTRA publication 'Pastured Poultry Nutrition', a nutrition publication written by poultry nutritionist, Jeff Mattocks. You can request a copy of this publication by calling ATTRA at 1-800-346-9140. This publication should help you to balance your flock's diet by comparing the nutrient analysis of the ingredients you are feeding them to their nutritional requirements. Appendix A has the nutrient values of different feed ingredients and Appendix B has the nutritional requirements for broilers in different stages of their life. By comparing these values, it should give you an idea of what may be missing or what may be unnecessary in their diet.

Poultry do have the ability to self select their diet if everything they need is made available. It is important to look at the amino acid levels in the available ingredients compared to what is required. Amino acids are building blocks for proteins and are essential for proper and efficient growth. Calcium is another important consideration, and oyster shells or other calcium source should be made accessible for the birds.

While typically you start with a high protein (20-23%) for chicks and decrease this level as the birds get closer to harvest weight, many pastured producers continue with a 20% protein level throughout the birds life. Providing "cafeteria style" or "buffet" like feeding with separate ingredients will allow them to balance their diet to a proper protein level that could depend on their age, the weather, what they are foraging in the pasture, among other factors. While the pasture will provide some of the diet it is not wise to rely on it for a sole source of particular ingredients because what is available in the pasture and the nutrient values of what can be foraged changes throughout the year.

In regards to feeding layers the distillers grain by-product: It is important to keep the layers protein level at about 16-18%. A higher protein level will result in the hens gaining too much weight which could disrupt their reproductive system and egg production. A low protein and high energy ingredient such as wheat should be made available for the laying hens as well so they can balance their diet. A calcium source should also be made available as laying hens can be depleted of calcium quickly through egg laying.

In regards to feeding vegetable/bakery waste: While many backyard poultry producers feed these items to their flocks, it is not wholly recommended as a constant feeding. These items can be difficult to monitor especially if they are from an outside source and can also decrease the birds efficiency in either producing meat or eggs. An alternative way to use such items may be to start a worm bin and feed them to the worms. The worms will turn these wastes into nutrient rich worm castings (vermicompost) to use on growing plants and the worms themselves will grow and multiply and can be harvested for a high protein chicken food. More information on using worms for composting can be found in ATTRA's publication Worms for Composting.

For additional information on feeding distiller grain by-products to poultry please see University of Minnesota's extensive website on the topic: http://www.ddgs.umn.edu/
A fact sheet for feeding corn distiller dried grains to poultry can be found at the following link: http://www.ddgs.umn.edu/feeding-poultry/MCGA%20corn%20DDGS%20for%20Poultry%20REVISED%20Oct05.pdf

An excellent contact on the subject of distiller grains in livestock feeding is Dr. Sally Noll at the University of Minnesota. Her contact information follows.
Dr. Sally Noll
Department of Animal Science
1364 Eckles Ave
St. Paul, MN 55108
612-624-4928
nollx001@umn.edu

K.K.

Wisconsin

Answer: Thank you for contacting ATTRA for information about commercial sprouts production.

Please read the on-line sprouts publication available on the ATTRA website.
Here is the link: http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/sprout.html

This publication includes photocopies of several articles which we can't provide electronically because of copyright issues. You can call ATTRA at 800-346-9140 to request a hard copy that will include all of the articles.

Although the publication is old, I believe that the information is still accurate. The food safety issues about contamination of sprouts because of bacterial infestation of the seed continues to be a concern, industry-wide. The FDA has been working with growers, often through the International Sprout Growers Association (ISGA), to develop acceptable protocols to prevent contaminated sprouts from reaching the consumer. Chlorination is still the recommended method.

Many sprout growers test the used wash water for contaminants and find that this is another tool to protect consumers and themselves. Here's an FDA document that might be of interest as you consider this commercial venture.

The ISGA will be having its international convention May 19-22 in downtown Chicago this year. You can find more information about the convention on the ISGA site.

T.H.

Kansas

Answer: Thank you for contacting ATTRA for information on pricing cuts of beef. The following resources will allow you to determine yield and price for retail beef cuts.

University of Vermont Meat Yield Calculation Spreadsheet
You can calculate the expected hot carcass weight and final "retail" yield for your beef, sheep, and hogs using this Excel spreadsheet. You will need the animal's live weight (or an estimate of it), the dressing percentage, and cutting yield. The spreadsheet has some default values, but you can refine them using the information in the article:

Did the Locker Plant Steal Some of My Meat?
You can also calculate what your customer will pay in total dollars and also in terms of pounds of meat received. You will need to know your slaughter fee, cut and wrap cost, and other fees, such as offal disposal fee. The Colorado State Beef Cutout Calculator

Very powerful tool for estimating beef cutout based on averages of typical beef cattle slaughtered in the United States.

Direct and Local Meat Marketing Aids, University of Kentucky

Direct marketing budgets and yield and pricing guides. For the pricing guides, enter the live weight, dressing percent, slaughter and processing fees, and price per retail cut and the spreadsheet will compute net revenue.

Link: http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/admin/b2edit.php

M.S.
New Mexico

Answer: Thank you for your recent request for information from ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service.

Unfortunately, there is very little information on using solar or wind to heat a hoop house. Most of the information available is on using alternative fuels for supplemental heating in a hoop house or using wind or solar to power roll-up or roll-down sides of a hoop house. I recommend that you investigate solar and wind options for a greenhouse and see if there are systems that may be compatible for a hoop house. I would also like to mention that there are several options for heating a hoop house that do not require a fuel source. These options include using double poly walls with a blower and using low tunnels inside of a high tunnel. This method is described in detail in Eliot Coleman's newest book, The Winter Harvest Handbook.

New Mexico grower Don Bustos uses a solar-heated greenhouse that includes a root-zone thermal heating system. Bustos received funding from a SARE grant to help fund his solar-heated system. For more information on this project, please visit the SARE web site (www.sare.org) and click on the western region.

Here is a list of additional resources that may be beneficial to your request:

ATTRA's Solar Greenhouse Resource List
This resource list discusses basic principles of solar greenhouse design, as well as different construction material options.

HighTunnels.org Contains information and resources on high tunnels. Also has a list serve for growers to ask one another specific questions on high tunnel production.

Growing for Market
Publication for market farmers; web site contains great information and past articles on hoop house growing and energy sources.

NREL Information on small photovoltaic systems for homes and farms.

BuildItSolar.com Plans, tools, and information on do-it-yourself renewable energy and conservation projects.

Home Power Magazine Information, plans, and resources for renewable energy

W.R.
Minnesota

Answer: Thank you for contacting ATTRA for information on converting a pasture to organic grain crops without using herbicide or tillage.

This is a tricky question. Obviously, you have figured out that you want to keep the soil structure that good pasture provides, but are a bit stuck, since much of organic weed control depends on tillage.

Be aware that no perfect organic no-till system has been developed. You will probably have a lot of trial and error to figure this out. Rodale is really the leader in developing an organic no-till. However, even in their system, there is some tillage. So it might be better called “minimum till.”

Here’s some of my thoughts. I would start by reviewing some of the innovative work being done by the Burleigh County Soil Conservation District near Bismarck, North Dakota. They are not organic, but are doing some innovative things with cover crops in a no-till rotation. I was just out there this past summer. They have a website with some interesting PowerPoints. The one I would suggest is Bringing CRP Into A No-Till Cash Grain System. You can find the website at: http://www.bcscd.com/. The presentations are in the Soil Health category. This particular presentation talks about Glenn Bauer in Regan, ND.

He started preparing the ground in the fall. He sprayed with RoundUp and then hayed off 2/3 of the residue. He then combined the remaining 1/3 of the residue and used the spreaders to get an even distribution of the residue. Next he did 3 passes with a disc. But it’s important to note that the disc only ran on the surface and acted more like a leveler to smooth out the bumps. (There is an illustration of this in the PPoint.) You wouldn’t want the disk to really rip into the soil… this would break down the beautiful soil structure that developed with the pasture years.

In the spring he did a light harrow operation, then a roller pass. Next he seeded field peas with a roller pass after seeding. (He recommends a deeper seeding depth in expired CRP than in a normal field.) After seeding he had 2 herbicide applications. A week after harvesting the pea, he seeded a cover crop cocktail of about 8 species. This cover crop was predominately low C:N species to help with further residue breakdown. In addition, he had some forage radish and turnip to help with infiltration. (The details of the mix are in the PPoint.) I believe that this cover crop terminated with winter kill and no herbicide was used.

This spring he planted no-till corn into this field and it looks great.

Now, the big question for you is… how can you do this in an organic system? This is the big unknown. Some suggestions… Obviously, you’re not going to use RoundUp for termination. But the haying, residue spreading, and discing are still workable options. Also, I would consider planting a different crop than field peas the first spring. I’m not sure that peas would be competitive enough. Also, I am making the assumption that your pasture was predominately grasses. Is this correct? If so, you will want to be putting in as many broadleaf crops at first to help with this residue breakdown. And, since grassy pasture can tend to be nitrate deficient, you would want most of those to be legumes.

So… the trick is to find the highest competitive legume that you can. I’m not sure there would be time to get a fall-seeded legume in due to all the disc operations required in the fall. However, a fall-seeded species would give you that extra jump on the growing season. The fall vs. spring seeded would be a question you would have to answer.

Would hairy vetch do the trick? Alternatively, is there a mix of species that would outcompete everything else? My guess is that by planting an annual mix of about 7 or 8 species you could get canopy cover at all levels, which would really help to choke out any weeds. You could then use a swather and lay down the cover crop residue in an even layer (not windrows), or try the roller crimper.

As you may know, the roller crimper is not a perfected technology. Burleigh County tried it on a mix of pea and oats. The pea terminated, but the oats bounced back. This year they rolled a crop of only peas and it worked very well. Notice that you wouldn’t want to hay off this cover crop, because you would want all of the residue to feed the soil biology.

Another option for termination would be to do some intensive fall grazing. The advantages of this strategy are that you kill the cover crop, feed your livestock, and get manure value. Stocking rates need to be relatively high to get an even kill and an even distribution of manure.

After you terminate your first cover crop off, you would want to seed your fall cover crop right away for soil building and weed control. The fall cover crop could all be species that winter kill. Again, I would recommend using a mixture of species. Your residue levels will determine the mix of species in this crop.

In addition, I would highly recommend doing some baseline soil tests for nutrients and organic matter. Make sure you don’t have too much residue to tie up the nitrogen. I would advise that you not plant a cash crop the first year after a grassy pasture, so that the nutrients in the residue have a chance to cycle into the soil. It might be that you could get your first cash crop in 2012 if you begin your transition this fall. That would really depend on the condition of your soil, the weed pressure, and the soil test results.

Dr. Pat Carr at the Dickinson research station might also be a good contact as he is doing some work on developing organic no-till, although his research his in drier climates than Minnesota. His number is: (701) 483-2348 x.143

T.G.

Wisconsin

Answer:

Thank you for calling ATTRA to request information about elderberry production.

Elderberry, Sambucas Canadensis, is a native plant throughout much of the U.S. The fruit and flowers are edible, and are traditionally used for making wines, jams, syrups, and natural food colorings. The fruit is currently receiving increased attention because of its antioxidant and antiviral activity. At the 2010 Missouri Small Fruit and Vegetable Growers’ Conference, researchers and growers extolled the virtues of elderberries.

Terry Durham, a Missouri grower, has planted at least 17 acres to elderberries; the juice is sold in 11-ounce bottles priced at $15 per bottle. The Missouri River Hills Elderberry Producers Cooperative will host a conference and farm tour on June 17 and 19, 2010 at the Carver Center, Jefferson City, Missouri, and Eridu Farms, near Hartsburg. Call 573-999-3034 or check the website www.elderberrylife.com for details.

Other resources provide information on propagation, planting, pruning, fertilization and irrigation, weed control, and harvest. The bulletin Growing Currants, Gooseberries, and Elderberries in Wisconsin should be available through your local University of Wisconsin Extension office. You can also access it online at: http://learningstore.uwex.edu/assets/pdfs/A1960.PDF

Birds can be a significant problem on all small fruits. (Cardinals, brown thrashers, and mockingbirds stripped the fruit on the one elderberry shrub that volunteered in my market garden; maybe it was planted by the same birds?) Netting may be an effective tactic for saving the berries for your own harvest.

As with any perennial crop, it is best to eliminate as many weeds as possible before you plant elderberries. This can be done through cover cropping before planting, and mulching the shrubs annually after planting. Mulching also helps to keep the soil cool and moist during the typically dryer and hotter months of summer.

Resources:

Anon. 2009. Minor Fruits: Elderberries, Sambucus spp. Cornell University Department of Horticulture. 2 p. Online at: http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/mfruit/elderberries.html.

Byers, Patrick, and Andrew Thomas. No date. Elderberry Research and Production in Missouri. University of Missouri Cooperative Extension and Southwest Research and Education Center. 5 p. http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/Berries/specialtyfru%20pdf/elderberrymissouri.pdf

Byers, Patrick, and Andrew Thomas. 2009. Elderberry: Culture and Potential in Missouri. Microsoft PowerPoint presentation at Small Fruit and Vegetable Growers Conference. 7 p. Online at: http://mtngrv.missouristate.edu/assets/commercial/ByersandThomas.pdf

Durham, Terry. 2010. Elderberrylife newsletter. 2 p. Online at: http://elderberrylife.com/lettercurr.html

Roper, Teryl R., Daniel L. Mahr, and Patricia S. McManus. 1998. Growing Currants, Gooseberries, and Elderberries in Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Cooperative Extension. 12 p. Online at: http://learningstore.uwex.edu/assets/pdfs/A1960.PDF

P.J.

Washington

Answer: Thank you for contacting ATTRA for information on energy efficiency measures for dairy farms. In Appendix 2 of NCAT's report "Farm Energy Audits: Availability, Usefulness, and Cost"(Audit Program Profiles), we asked several agricultural energy efficiency programs "What are the most common energy-saving measures included in your recommendations?" The following three answers were directly relevant to dairies:

1. Alliant Energy said, "Vacuum pumps, transfer systems, compressors, water heaters."
2. Efficiency Vermont said, "Plate coolers, variable frequency drives on milk vacuum pumps, electric heat or hot water fuel switches, lighting, variable speed drives on milk-transfer systems, heat recovery units."
3. Focus on Energy said, Plate coolers, VSD vacuum pumps, refrigeration system heat recovery, and commercial liquid propane and natural water heating systems.
I also highly recommend Scott Sanford's article:
Capturing Energy Savings on Dairy Farms : www.aceee.org/conf/af05/05agsanfordIc.pdf Obviously no two farms are alike. But based on my conversations with experts, I'd go out on a limb and say the top three energy efficiency technologies are probably refrigeration system heat recovery, well water pre-coolers (plate coolers), and variable-speed vacuum pumps. Lighting improvements also often have very short paybacks. And simple maintenance (e.g. cleaning fans, louvers, and condensers) can save surprisingly large amounts of energy with little or no capital cost. Scroll compressors, variable-speed milk pumps, and high-volume-low-speed fans are often well worth doing, but tend to have somewhat longer paybacks. Also see ATTRA's Dairy Energy Efficiency Resources publication.

R.L.

Kentucky

Answer: Thank you for contacting ATTRA for information on current markets for ginseng and goldenseal.

First, see ATTRA's publication Ginseng, Goldenseal, and Other Native Roots as it contains helpful production information.

Also, please note that the American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) and goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) are listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), an international treaty designed to control and regulate international trade in certain animal and plant species. As such, all exports of ginseng and goldenseal require an export permit issued by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS).

In addition, 19 states, including Kentucky, where ginseng naturally occurs, have established a certification program for ginseng as required by the FWS. These 19 states regulate and monitor the harvest of ginseng, whether wild or cultivated, within their borders. All ginseng dealers and ginseng growers are required to register with the appropriate regulatory agency in their state. The role of the FWS is to ensure that exports of ginseng and goldenseal are legal and not detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild. The FWS website provides information about ginseng.

The American Herbal Products Association (AHPA) provides information to
encourage people who harvest wild American ginseng to do so in a way that is sustainable. They offer state-specific information about regulations and excellent general information to help harvesters understand the plant and its life cycle and how to ensure survival of the wild ginseng populations. You may download a brochure for your state on the AHPA website.

Because you are located in Kentucky, you should be sure to view the Kentucky Department of Agriculture ginseng page. There is a link on this page to Kentucky dealers operating in 2009-2010. Also, if you scroll down, underneath the Downloads header, you will see a link titled, "Links to Other Information." This page contains links to other states' ginseng programs and to the wildcrafting profiles from University of Kentucky.

Dr. Jeanine Davis, North Carolina State University, has done extensive research and is a valuable resource on growing and marketing medicinal herbs and non-timber forest products. Her website offers a lot of information about production and marketing of these plants. More details are available in Davis's recent book and in NC Extension publications and Web pages referenced below. Dr. Davis is the foremost U.S. expert on goldenseal production. Consult NCherb.org for information on current markets.

Resources:
1. Persons, W. Scott, and Jeanine M. Davis. 2005. Growing & Marketing Ginseng, Goldenseal & Other Woodland Medicinals.

Bright Mountain Books, Fairview, NC. 466 p.

Available for purchase on Amazon.com.

2. Greenfield, Jacqui, and Jeanine M. Davis. 2003. Collection to Commerce: Western North Carolina Non-Timber Forest Products and Their Markets.

North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC. 112 p.
Available in PDF for download (warning: large file size).

3. Davis, Dr. Jeanine. 2010.
NCHerb.org
or

www.ces.ncsu.edu/fletcher/programs/herbs.

4.

What information can you give me on natural or organic methods for controlling parasites in my laying hens?